Australia is a country of polarity and diversity which purports a political ideology of all-inclusive multiculturalism. Yet at the core of the nation lays a foundation of institutional systems built on implicit and explicit conditioning which have their roots in the social construct of ethnocentric racism. The racialisation and othering of those who are not white has emanated from Australian Governments and through media commentary into every aspect of life for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples since colonisation. Creating disadvantage, ill-health, intergenerational trauma and a lack of social equity for Indigenous Australians. An example of this racialisation and othering occurred during the public debate surrounding Adam Goodes stance against racism. A situation which could have been better understood and avoided if viewed through the lens of white habitus, cultural responsiveness and anti-racist practice.
Historically, the Social Work profession is not exempt from creating catastrophic racist damage for Indigenous Australians. Issuing an apology to Indigenous Australians in 2004 for the profession’s role in creating inter-generational trauma, it was 2010 before the profession’s Code of Ethics was re-worded to include the ethical principles of social justice, human rights, respect for diversity, and provision of culturally competent, safe and sensitive practice which encompasses a commitment to valuing Indigenous Australians’ knowledge, experience, skills and relationships (International Federation of Social Workers 2018; Australian Association of Social Workers 2010; Green Bennett & Betteridge 2016). The Social Work profession, therefore, have a critical role to play in assisting with the de-colonisation of institutionalised racism.
Since invasion by the British in 1788 ethnocentric implicit and explicit racism, originally based on social Darwinism, has permeated life for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Racist behaviours have been foundational to the nation’s identity (Sherwood, Osmond & Phillips 2020). Aboriginals were seen by British colonisers to be a dying primitive race who were inferior to the British in culture, biology and morality (Hollinsworth 2006; Sherwood, Osmond & Phillips 2020; Bennett & Green 2019). Racist conditioning occurred by way of social Darwinism being taught to ‘successive generations of non-indigenous (and indeed indigenous) Australians’ resulting in institutionalised racism becoming both explicit and implicit within the Australian psyche (Hollinsworth 2006, pp. 83-84). This type of conditioning and its’ ongoing perpetuation can be understood and also eradicated when viewed from the concepts of Bourdieus’ habitus theory and also Whiteness theory, which when combined create the theory of White habitus (Walter, Taylor & Habibis 2011). Habitus, as seen by Bourdieu involved how people were socially conditioned via habits, dispositions and skills which determine their understanding of a situation and how they respond to it based on the cultural norms they have been exposed to (Emirbayer & Williams 2005; Walter, Taylor & Habibis 2011).
Whiteness theory focusses on and calls for the critical reflection of how white people do not normally see themselves as a race which holds power and dominance over other races (Walter, Taylor & Habibis 2011; Vanidestine & Aparicio 2019). When utilising White habitus, focus is moved away from othering and brought back to self, whilst also revealing how power relations and discourses are racially formed (Walter, Taylor & Habibis 2011; Young 2008). Explicit racism utilised by various Australian governments to maintain white ‘racial homogeneity’, originally involved extensive discursive efforts and repressive legislation to eradicate the country of the existing Aboriginals and their cultures (Sherwood, Osmond & Phillips 2020, p.98; Bennett & Green 2019). For example, in Queensland, legislation was implemented in 1897 via the Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act which served to codify beliefs that Aboriginals were a dying race, whilst asserting Australia as a white space in which Aboriginals did not belong (Sherwood, Osmond & Phillips 2020). Legislation such as this Act governed every aspect of Aboriginal life; their health, education, employment, housing, the justice system and welfare (Hollinsworth 2006; Briskman 2014; Bennett & Green 2019).
Australia’s institutionalised racism still exists, as was apparent in 2007 when the Howard Government implemented the Northern Territory Intervention, contravening international law in the process (Springer 2007). The Australian Bureau of Statistics (2016) states 2.8 per cent of the Australian population identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders and in 2015 to 2016, according to the Australian Human Rights Commission (2017), 54 per cent of the complaints received concerning racism under The Racial Discrimination Act were received by Indigenous Australians. Racist practices, policies and media discourses have had and continue to have a major detrimental impact on Indigenous Australians’ health and wellbeing (Hollinsworth 2006; Briskman 2014). As the 2020 Closing the Gap Report indicates, current life expectancy for Aboriginal Australians involves the intersectionality of social determinants in which they are disadvantaged such as income, housing, education and employment, all of which are ‘estimated to be responsible for at least 34 per cent of the health gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians’ (Briskman 2014; Australian Government 2020 n.p.).
Statistics released in 2018 indicated the mortality rate for Indigenous Australians is approximately 1.7 times greater than for non-Indigenous Australians and the initiatives implemented by the Federal Government to close the mortality gap between the two groups is not on target to reach its’ objectives by 2031 (Australian Government 2020). Disadvantage created by institutionalised racism since colonisation concerning Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders is apparent in every area of Australian life and is often exacerbated by changing political policies and media discourses.
The Australian conservative media still perpetuate racist thinking, which would not exist if cultural responsiveness, white habitus and anti-racist practice was occurring across the board. The media provoked controversial public debate, involving the proud, highly accomplished Indigenous Australian Football League (AFL) player; Adnyamathanha man, Australian of the Year in 2014, Adam Goodes, divided the nation when between 2013 and 2015 he publicly stood against racism and freely expressed his indigeneity. Several examples of institutionalised racism from non-Indigenous media commentators Adam Bolt, Sam Newman and Alan Jones occurred, and as Waleed Aly pointed out facts were altered to support their racist views (Begone Abbott 2015; The Weekly 2015; Whoknowsuknow 2015). Various media outlets touted Goodes as a ‘sook’, ‘whinger’, ‘cry baby’ and it was stated he was ‘playing the race card’ (Guatum 2019, p. 17). When, in the AFL Indigenous Round, which recognises and celebrates Indigenous culture, Goodes performed a celebratory war cry dance, the situation escalated to the extreme where every time he played football he was loudly booed by the crowd in what de Souza (2018, p. 460) described as a ‘sonic barometer that measures who is accepted and who is rejected.’ Acting within a model of cultural responsiveness requires critical self-reflection, recognition of the impact social structures have on individuals, asks questions, allows for critical examination of the structures which create oppression and permits the challenging of those structure (Green, Bennett & Batteridge 2016).
A culturally responsive approach therefore would have de-escalated the situation by commentators asking questions in order to perceive the situation from Goodes perspective, whilst critically reflecting on their own behaviour, thereby showing respect and affirming the multicultural diversity which exists in Australia. Instead, inflammatory, derogatory, racist and ignorant statements were made which impacted on Goodes’ health (BBC HARDtalk 2020). A culturally safe response would have also encompassed being aware not only of Aboriginal history but of Goodes’ personal history because when he was racially vilified by a young girl and then subjected to the persistent media coverage and booing from crowds it all not only shocked him but triggered racist traumatic memories of childhood experiences (Green, Bennett & Betteridge 2016; BBC HARDtalk 2020). Whilst Eddie MacGuire, in his role as media commentator and Collingwood Football Club president, initially supported Goodes, both MacGuire and former Victorian Premier, Jeff Kennett publicly criticised Goodes’s dance as being deliberately provocative and defended the crowd’s booing as being an acceptable response (de Souza 2018). The persistent booing and various criticisms which surrounded Goodes created a toxic workplace which pushed Goodes into a deep depression, resulting in him walking away from the sport he loved in 2015, for the sake of his mental health (BBC HARDtalk 2020).
In 2016 Australians spoke 300 languages and whilst the country purports to embrace multiculturalism, ongoing debate has occurred for decades amongst the media, politicians and academics concerning the concept and implementation of a multicultural society (Australian Bureau of Statistices 2016; Koleth 2010). Fear-based conservatives like John Howard and Pauline Hansen have been concerned that a true multi-cultural Australia will undermine the existing social structures and they have wanted to continue ‘preserving constructions of Australian nationhood and culture’ (Koleth 2010, n.p.). Yet, science has proven race is not a biological fact, but a social construct designed to have power over others who are different to the white majority (California Newsreel 2003), which is why anti-racist practice is useful in relation to dismantling institutional racism. Stemming from Critical Race Theory there is agreement that racism is a widespread oppressive social construct (Ladhani & Sitter 2020; Constance-Huggins 2019).
Anti-racist practice respects individual agency, whilst challenging and resisting injustices as it involves a commitment to creating ongoing equal opportunities for all that aligns with ‘equity of outcome’ (Berman & Paradies 2009, p.218). Given the multitude of culturally diverse individuals existing in Australia today, Australian society, as an evolving entity, needs to move beyond colonial based institutionalised racism due to the damage it has and continues to create. By utilising white habitus, cultural responsiveness and anti-racism to eliminate the racialisation of people and the othering that white Australians in powerful public positions currently use, all Australians can move into a future which is more dignified, respectful and equitable. As Social Work now holds the previously mentioned principles, values and ethics at its’ core, all Social Workers have a duty, responsibility and obligation to assist in educating, challenging and changing institutionalised racism in this country because whilst multiculturalism is something Australians claim to embody, statistically and historically speaking multiculturalism and embracing cultural diversity, is a concept, not a reality.
Copyright C. O’Connor, November 2021.
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